Religions in Arakan

Paper presented at the Arakanese History and Religion Seminar, London, August 2009

By U Khin Maung Saw
8/9/2009

1. Introduction:

Among the 7 Union States of Burma the Rakhine State or the Arakan is the immediate neighbour of the Subcontinent. There might have been some contacts between Arakan and the Subcontinent since the first dynasty of the Arakanese. Buddhism and the Pali language used in Buddhist Canons came very early to the Mons, Arakan and Pyus, much earlier than the emigration of the Burmese in the country which is now Burma. Pyu, Mon and Burmese/Arakanese scripts were based on the South Indian scripts.

The Rakhaings (Arakanese) traditionally believe that they are the descendants of the “Sakya Sakis” the race from which Lord Gautama Buddha came[1]. Most historians and anthropologists, however, say that they belong to the Tibeto-Burmese groups.

The Arakanese (Rakhaing/Rakhine) believe that their ancestors had to chase out the demon-like beings (most probably Negrito tribes) before they established their first kingdom. After that the people had to be very united to repel the invasions of the tribes they chased out. That’s why they named themselves Rakkhita People. The Pali word Rakkhita means ‘the one who protects his own race’. And therefore their country was called ‘Rakkhita Mandala’ and later deviated to ‘Rakkhita Mandaing’ and then to ‘Rakkha Mandaing’. The word “Arakan” is therefore a derivation of “Rakkha Mandaing – Rakhaing” – “Arakhaing” – “Arakan”.

There is another hypothesis: The Sanskrit word rakshasa, Pali rakkhaso can be translated as “the demon of water” or “an ogre-like being living in water”. That’s why the etymology of Arakan can be traced as a Sanskrit or Pali words A-Rakkha Desa (The Land which is now free from the Demons). The word “Arakan” is therefore a derivation of “A-Rakkha Desa – A-Rakkhan” – “Arakan”. Sir Arthur Phayre as well as Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell’s “Hobson-Jobson” A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (First Published in 1886) supported this version too[2].

2. Religions in Arakan:

2.1. Hinduism:

There is no doubt that the early kingdoms of Arakan were Hindu states. Some Hindu deities were found in ancient cities. However, Hinduism might have been replaced by Buddhism when the kings and people became Buddhists.

2.2. Buddhism:

According to the legend of the Maha Muni Image, Arakan was already a Buddhist Kingdom during the time of Lord Buddha because Lord Buddha visited Arakan due to the invitation of King Sanda Thuriya (Chandra Suriya).

U San Shwe Bu[3], on the other hand, wrote that King Sanda Thuriya ascended the throne of Arakan in 146 A.D, six hundred years after the Pari Nibanna of Lord Buddha.

Contrast to the legend he stated that the statue was casted in the 2nd century AD.

In any case, it is safe to say that Arakan became a Buddhist Land at the beginning of Anno Domini, if not earlier. Since that time Arakan remains a Buddhist land till now and all Arakanese or Rakhaings are devout Buddhists. Nowadays, population ratio between Arakanese and Burmese may be 1:10, however if one compares the number of Buddhist temples, monasteries, monks and nuns the ratio is only 1:4. It is proven how religious Arakanese or Rakhaings were and are.

Arakan was well known to be “the Land of Pagodas and Temples”. There is a famous Arakanese verse: Thazun pan Khaing ta mraing mraing Rakhaing Phara paung”, which was nicely translated into English verse by U Tha Hla as: “The Thazun (a type of orchid) sprigs in sheer clusters, Sum the total of the pharas grandeur”. According to this verse, there were 6352755 Pharas (Buddha Statues) in Arakan.

Maurice Collis described the situation of Buddhism in the year 1630 during the reign of Min Hayi (Man Hari) alias Thiri Thudhamma (Sri Sudhamma). In his book The Land of the Great Image, in page 168 where it was written: “The Buddha had died in 543 B.C. Altogether 2173 years had elapsed since then, and for that immense period the image of the Founder of the Religion had remained on Sirigutta, the oldest, most mysterious, the most holy object in the world. The relics detailed to the disciples on Selagiri had all been found and enshrined. Arakan was a sacred country; it was the heart of Buddhism; and he (King Thiri Thudhamma) as its king, was the most notable Buddhist ruler in existence. Grave indeed was his responsibility. He had not only to maintain the state as the homeland of the Arakanese race, but as the one place on earth where an authentic shape of the Tathagata was preserved, a possession of greater potency than the most precious relics”.

Buddhists kings with Pseudonym Muslim Titles:

All kings of the Mrauk U dynasty, the last dynasty in Arakan, were Buddhists. Some kings had assumed Muslim Titles because, Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City wanted to show his gratitude to the Sultan of Gaur who helped him regain the Arakanese throne in 1430. Hence, he promised the Sultan that the Arakanese kings would bear Pseudonym Muslim Titles. But in fact, all of the Arakanese kings were donors of many temples in Mrauk U as well as in the other parts of Arakan. They did make coins, one side with Burmese/Arakanese scripts and the other side with Persian (NOT Bengali).

For example: Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan), the founder of the Mrauk U City with the assumed Muslim Title ‘Suleiman Shah’ built seven Buddhists temples in Mrauk U. One of them was Laymyetna Phaya (Leemyatna Phara) in Mrauk U (now Mrohaung). His successor and younger brother Min Khayi (Man Khari), who had an assumed Muslim Title ‘Ali Khan’, erected the Nyidaw Zedi (Satee), which can be roughly translated as ‘The Pagoda built by the Younger Brother’. His son and successor King Ba Saw Phru alias Kaliman Shah constructed four Buddhists temples including the Maha Bodi Shwegu Pagoda. His son Dan Ugga alias Daluya, who bore the Muslim Title Moguh Shah, was the donor of Thongyaik Tasu Temple (meaning the temple of Thirty One Buddhas). His successor Min Yan Aung (Man Ran Aung) alias Narui Shah founded the Htupayon Pagoda. Min Bin (Man Ban) had an assumed Muslim Title of Zabauk Shah; was the donor of seven temples including Shit Thaung Phaya (Shite Thaung Phara) or the Temple of Eighty Thousand Buddha Statues. Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) alias Secudah Shah was the donor of six temples including Htukkan Thein, his son Min Yaza Gyi (Man Raza Gri) with the Muslim Title Salem Shah donated Phaya Paw (Phara Paw) Pagoda and Pakhan Thein in Mrauk U and also Shwe Kyaung Pyin Monastery in Thandwe. Min Khamaung, who subjoined the Muslim Title Hussein Shah constructed Yatanapon (Ratanabon) and Yatana Pyethet (Ratana Prethat) Pagodas and his son Thri Thudhamma (meaning the Protector of Buddhist Religion) alias Salem Shah the Second, erected the Sekkya Manaung (Sakkya Manaung) Pagoda.

The Burmese invasion in 1784, led by the Burmese Crown Prince then, was to snatch the Holy Maha Muni Image, the national Symbol of Arakan. Nowadays this colossal image can be seen near Mandalay and the statue is called in colloquial Burmese Phayagyi (Paragri), which is the direct translation of Pali Word Maha Muni. During the British Era this temple was translated as ‘Arakan Pagoda’.

2.3. Christianity:

Many Portuguese mercenaries served under Arakanese kings since 16th Century A.D[4]. Later, the Dutch mercenaries did the same job. So, there is no doubt that there must have been some Christians in Arakan, but almost all of them were foreigners with very few Arakanese who converted into Christianity through marriage.

According to Maurice Collis and U San Shwe Bu[5], in 1610 Arakanese King Razagri had appointed his younger son, Min Mangri, Viceroy of Chittagong. This prince was not in good terms with his elder brother and the crown prince then Min Khamaung, the Viceroy of Thandwe. Min Khamaung was a rebellious Prince towards his father, hence the king wanted to replace the position of the crown prince from his elder son to the younger son. However, Min Mangri made friendship with the Portuguese pirate-king Gonsalves Tibau of Sandwip Island. The marriage of Min Mangri’s daughter with Tibau’s son was agreed and she had to convert into Catholicism. Min Mangri had three children, two daughters and a son. In the year 1610 his son was four years old.

When King Razagri heard of this marriage and realized that this younger son was now allied with the ruffian who had treacherously seized his fleet, in 1612 Razagri sent an army under the Crown Prince Min Khamaung. Min Khamaung took this duty willingly, because his own right to become the future king was threatened. In the battle Min Mangri was shot dead and finally Gonsalves Tibau surrendered. The King of Arakan, decided to pardon Gonsalves Tibau and invited him to contrive some way of saving the young prince and his sister, who were his own grand children.

Meanwhile Min Khamaung had entered Chittagong without opposition and after attending his brother’s funeral immediately called for his nephew and niece. When they were not forthcoming, he suspected Tibau, but it was not until afterwards that he learnt they had escaped to the Moghul Empire. Foiled in this, he finished his business and returned to Mrauk-U, where later in the year he succeeded his father when his father died.

Later these two children of Min Mangri were baptized by the Catholic priests. This son of Min Mangri afterwards became known as Dom Martin, a Catholic and the first Arakanese who went to Europe.

2.3.1 The term ‘Phalaung’:

Phalaung is the Arakanese term for the Portuguese. It is a corrupted word from Persian Farangi or Firingi, i.e. a Frank, meaning European. This term for European is very old in Asia. Till now, in Thailand all Whites are called “Phalang”. The Burmese used to call Portuguese as Ba-yin-gi (Barangi), a corruption of Farangi. However, a modern Burmese meaning of Ba-yin-gi is for Roman Catholic Christians.

This Arakanese king, Min Phalaung’s real name was Chit Hnaung (Shite Hnaung) meaning the latest beloved (son). He was the youngest son of Min Bargyi (Man Bargri) and was born on that day when Arakanese armed forces destroyed the Portuguese fleet and conquered the Portuguese Fort of Dianga. That’s why his father named him Min Phalaung (Man Phalaung) which can be roughly translated as “King or Ruler of the Portuguese”.

Here, I would like to cite Maurice Collis, “The appeal of the Portuguese”: “We (the Portuguese) have come to assure His Majesty that the Portuguese of Dianga are His Majesty’s devoted humble servants, as they have ever been in the past, having served him and his father and grandfather of the glorious memory, not only by harrying the Mogul in Bengal, but fighting his enemy, the king of Pegu. If God grants me the fortune of being admitted to the royal presence, my endeavour will be to convince His Majesty of my nation’s continued desire to serve him”.[6].

The first chapel, however, was built only after 1630 A.D., because the Catholic Missionary of Augustinian Order, Father Sebastien Manrique arrived Arakan from Goa in 1630 and asked permission to build a chapel from the Arakanese king. King Thri Thudhamma was so kind by not only allowing the Portuguese priest to build a chapel near the royal palace, but also he lent him money. In the opening ceremony of the church the Arakanese king lent him golden flower vases decorated with various jewels. Father Manrique recorded this in his memoirs by praising King Thri Thudhamma that the Buddhist king was so generous and helped him what even monarchs of other Christian sects would not have done although they share the same god and follow the principles of Jesus Christ.[7].

Father Manrique also recorded that though Arakan had a common border with India, particularly with Bengal, there was nothing common between Arakanese and Bengalis or Indians regarding race, features, language, religion, characters, mentality, culture, traditions and civilization. He also recorded that he had never seen a single Arakanese (Rakhaing) who became a Muslim.

Here, I would like to cite some words of Father Manrique: “The city of Arracan according to general opinion must have contained one hundred and sixty thousand inhabitants, excluding foreign merchants. There were also a great number of foreign merchants, as there were many ships trading with this port from Bangala, Masulipatan, Tenasserim, Martaban, Achen und Jacatra. There were other foreigners also, some being merchants and some soldiers, the latter being enlisted on salaries; these soldiers were Portuguese, Pegus (i.e. Mons) Burmese and
Mogors (Moguhls) in nationality. Besides these, there were many Christians of Japanese, Bengali and other nationalities”.[8]

4. Islam

1.Muslim Settlements in Arakan:

1.Pre Colonial Era:

Arakan has a common border with Bengal, so there is no doubt that there must have been some Muslim settlers in Arakan even before the Mrauk U Dynasty was established, however, their number could be negligible and apart from that they were not Arakanese (Rakhaings) instead they were some foreigners.[9]

Some Muslims claimed that Muslim settlements in Arakan date back to the 9th century A.D”. This statement is wrong and baseless, because even in Bengal the Muslim settlements began much later, and in Chittagong not until the 14th century. In the ninth century A.D., even the biggest country in Southeast Asia with the world’s largest Muslim population, Indonesia, was under the Sri Vijaya Empire, which was a Hindu-Buddhist Empire.

Maurice Collis wrote very clearly: “Bengal was absorbed into this polity, [that is, Islam] in 1203 A.D. But it was its extreme eastern limit. It never passed into Indo-China; and its influence from its arrival in 1203 till 1430 was negligible upon Arakan”[10].

2.4.1.2. Kaman Muslims:

The real Muslim settlement began only after Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) regained the throne of Arakan with the help of the Sultan of Gaur. There were some Muslim troops in Mrauk U to protect Min Saw Mun (Man Saw Muan) from the Burmese invasion. About two hundred years later, some followers of Mogul Prince Shah Shuja joined the descendants of these soldiers. These groups of mercenaries were Afghans and Moguls. They were called “Kamans”, meaning archers in Persian language. Their descendants still live in the Rakhine State, particularly in Akyab (Sittwe) District and Rambree Island. Now they are assimilated into the Arakanese society. Only in religion and complexion do they differ from the Arakanese (Rakhaing), they know the Arakanese language, literature and Buddhist traditions very well. Most of them have Burmese/Arakanese names. They rarely used their Muslim names.

2.4.1.3. Myay Du Muslims:

There are some Muslims living in Thandwe District. These Muslims are called “Myay Du”. They are the descendants of the former “Pagoda Slaves”.[11] When King Min Bin (Man Ban) alias Min Bargyi (Man Bargri) reoccupied the Chittagong District in A.D. 1533, he brought back some Bengalis as prisoners of war and let them work as menial workers at Andaw, Nandaw and Sandaw Pagodas in Thandwe. Since they had to do menial works and were not free people anymore, they were called “Pagoda Slaves”. In the year 1624, these Bengali “Pagoda Slaves” supported the ‘Palace revolution’ of the ‘Viceroy of Thandwe’ against his own father, the Arakanese king. After the aborted revolution against the Arakanese king these ‘Bengali Pagoda Slaves’ and their families, all together about four thousand people, escaped to Ava to take refuge. The Burmese king accepted them as his subjects, gave them their freedom by royal orders declaring that they were no longer “Pagoda Slaves”, and let them settle in the small town Myay Du. That’s why they were known as “Myay Du Muslims”. These “Myay Du Muslims”, generation by generation, served in the Burmese Royal Army. When Bodaw U Waing’s armies invaded Arakan in1784, the descendants of these “Myay Du Muslims” came together with the Burmese Army at Thandwe front. When the Burmese occupied Arakan they let the “Myay Dus” resettle in Thandwe and nearby villages. Since these people had lived about 150 years in Upper Burma, these “Myay Dus” were assimilated into Burmese society. Although their descendants live in Thandwe District, they speak Burmese central dialect instead of Arakanese Thandwe Dialect. Only in complexion and name (in some cases only) do they differ from the Arakanese and Burmese, yet they know the Burmese language, culture and traditions very well. Officially, they have Burmese/Arakanese names. They rarely use their Muslim names in public.

Since the “Kamans”, the descendants of Afghan archers started living in Arakan since 1430 and their population increased in 1660 when Sha Shuja followers joined them, and the “Myay Dus” the descendants of Bengali “Pagoda Slaves” started living in Arakan since 1533 they may be called “the Indigenous Muslims of Arakan”. For centuries to now, these “Indigenous Muslims of Arakan” lived and live peacefully with Burmese and Arakanese (Rakhaings), who are Buddhists. Even in the country-wide racial riots between Buddhists and Muslims starting from Rangoon in 1938, there was not a single riot in Thandwe[12].

2.4.1.4. The Colonial Era:

2.4.1.4.1 Early Bengali Muslim Settlers:

Only after the British annexed Burma and placed under the umbrella of the British Indian Empire did a lot of Bengalis, especially from Chittagong, came to settle in Arakan, particularly in the north. After the First Anglo-Burmese War which broke out in 1824 and ended in 1826, some parts of Burma were annexed by the British. These areas became part of British India since 1826. Hence, since 1826 people from the Subcontinent were able to come to Burma freely, unconditionally and some were brought by the British for various reasons. However, the volume of Indian immigration before the middle of the nineteenth century, though continuous, was never on a very large scale compared to what it came to be from 1852 onwards. A new chapter in the history of Indian immigration into Burma began after the British annexation of Lower Burma after the Second Anglo-Burmese War (1852), and the whole of Burma after the Third War in 1886. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 marked a turning point in the economic and administrative history of British-Burma. The British government wanted to export Burmese rice and they extended the rice fields in Arakan, Tenassarim and Lower Burma, and they also wanted to construct railway lines. As they needed peasants and coolies they imported tens of thousands of Indians.

There were five types of Indian immigrants: (1) Permanent settlers; (2) Long-term settlers, who came to seek their fortune in the then most prosperous country in Southeast Asia, but for retired life they preferred to stay in India rather than in Burma; (3) Seasonal workers who came for a fixed short period; (4) Government servants and traders who wanted to earn and save money so that they and their offspring could settle permanently in Burma as rich people; and (5) People brought by the British for various reasons.

Because of that the famous archaeologist in Burma Prof. E. Forschhammer had predicted that generally Burma, particularly Arakan would become the ‘Palestine of the Far East’[13]

2.4.1.4.2. Bengali Settlers during the Colonial Era:

Arakan has very fertile soil with sufficient rain falls, hence, British wanted to expand rice fields in Arakan. Since the country was under-populated and has a direct land border with Bengal, particularly with Chittagong District, many Chittagonian Bengalis were brought to Arakan as cheap labourers, peasants and coolies.

Some Chittagonian Bengalis were brought to Arakan to construct a railway track between the two towns, Butheedaung and Maungdaw. The construction project (1916-18) stopped without finishing the railway line, but those Chittagonian Bengalis never returned back to Bengal.

These latter Bengali settlers are called “Khawtaw Kalas” in both Burmese and Arakanese.

Some settlers learnt Arakanese and Burmese; hence, some of them were assimilated into the native society. However, these Chittagonian Bengalis differ from the Arakanese in their features, complexion and religion as well as in some customs which their religion directs; in writing they use Burmese but among themselves employ colloquially the language of their ancestors, either Urdu or Bengali. They never named themselves ‘Rohingyas’ but ‘Arakan Muslims’. Since they were assimilated in the native society, Burmese as well as Arakanese (Rakhaings) did not call them Khawtaw Kala any more, but used the term Muslims, just to differentiate them from the natives who are Buddhists. Though Kamans and Myaydus are Muslims they were already assimilated in the native society. When one hears the name Kaman or Myaydu, one knows automatically that they are Muslims.

Unfortunately, however, many latter settlers never tried to assimilate into the native society and therefore they were and are never welcomed by the natives, neither by the Burmese nor by the Arakanese society. Nor could they join even in the society of “Indigenous Muslims of Arakan”, the “Kamans” and the “Myay Dus”. That was the main reason why racial riots happened often during the whole colonial era and also in post-colonial era, especially in Northern Arakan.

After Burmese Independence:

3.1. Bengali Settlers’ Plan to split Arakan:

After Burma regained her independence Bengali settlers wanted to turn northern Arakan into an autonomous Muslim state. “Some members of the ‘Juniyatu Olamai’ religious association went to Karachi on a delegation to discuss the incorporation of Butheedaung, Maungdaw and also Rathedaung townships into East Pakistan”[14]. The Arakanese (Rakhaings) could not tolerate it, and there was bloodshed because of riots between the Arakanese and the Bengali settlers. Eventually some of these settlers went back to East Pakistan but some of them went underground and called themselves “Mujahid” rebels fighting U Nu’s government while the rest of them remained in their villages. With the help of educated Bengalis from Arakan and Rangoon they demanded for Burmese citizenship.

3.2. Mujahid Rebels:

The leader of the “Mujahids rebels was Mir Cassim, an uneducated fisherman. It was only an illusion of an uneducated man like Cassim who wanted to turn a traditionally Buddhist land like Arakan, which is full of temples, monasteries, monks and nuns, into a Muslim state. As a result, in the 1950′s these rebels were totally crushed. Some surrendered while some fled to East Pakistan. Cassim fled to East Pakistan and he was shot dead in Cox Bazaar by an unknown person in 1966.

Both surrendered Mujahid and Bengali Muslim Settlers did not want to be called Khawtaw Kala or Kala which according to their own interpretation supposed to be derogatory because ‘Kala’ means ‘dark’ or ‘Coloured’ or ‘Blackie’ in the languages such as Hindi, Urdu, Bengali . In fact, the literal pronunciation of the Burmese as well as Arakanese word ‘Kala’ is ‘Kula’ and also written as ‘Kula’. This term was derived from the Pali or Sanskrit word ‘Kula Puttra’ meaning ‘the son of a noble race’ because Lord Buddha himself was an Indian. Both Po and Sagaw Karen word for Indian is ‘Kula’ and the Thai word for Indian is ’Kal’. Hence, it is not derogatory instead it is ‘a word of courtesy’!

Anyway, Bengali Muslim Settlers did not want to be called ‘Kala’. As a result, they settled for the name “Rohingya”. In the late 1950″s, the demand for the statehood of the Rakhaings (Arakanese) and the Mons was at the peak. The Bengalis who started calling themselves “Rohingyas” asked for the same status as the Arakanese (Rakhaings). When their demands were turned down by the Burmese government on the grounds that they were not an indigenous race of Arakan, some educated Bengali Muslims like M. A. Tahir, well known through his Burmese name Ba Tha, Maung Than Lwin and some Bengali Muslim students from the University of Rangoon began to fabricate historical facts to prove that they were “Indigenous Arakanese Muslims” and started to fabricate stories that they and their ancestors belonged to Arakan historically.

Evolution of the word ‘Rohingya’:

3.3.1. The possible etymology of the term ‘Rohingya’:

There are many stories fabricated by educated Bengali Muslims to prove that their ancestors were the indigenous ethnic minorities of Arakan but all of them are baseless. However, the possible etymology of the term ‘Rohingya can be traced as follows:

3.3.2. Corruption of Arakanese word ‘Rahauntha’:

After the Second World War when British Administration restarted in Burma, all Bengalis who went back to Bengal during the war came back to Arakan. They brought many new settlers with them. Because of their immigration waves many Arakanese left their villages in Northern Arakan and moved southwards. These villages were named “Old or Deserted or abandoned Villages”, Ywa-Haun in Burmese (Rwa-Haun or Ra-haun in Arakanese pronunciation). The villagers of Ywa-Haun were called Ywa-Haun-Tha in Burmese (Ra-Haun-Tha in Arakanese pronunciation). Those Bengali new settlers could not pronounce ‘Ra-Haun’ as well as Ra-Haun-Tha properly and called with their Bengali accent “Ro-han” and the “Ro-han-za”, respectively. Later it deviated to ‘Ro-han-ja’ and then ‘Ro-hin-gya’.

3.3.3. The statement of Arakanese (Rakhaings) in Bangladesh or Anauktha

According to them, in the Bengali Chittagonian dialect the term ‘Rohingya’ referred to the people of inland Rakhaing Buddhists. These Rakhaings of the West stated clearly that it is a name used by the Bengalis to denote a Rakhine – a Buddhist Rakhine. Since the word is of Bengali origin, some of the Muslim secessionist groups used the name to identify themselves to be the natives of Arakan and named themselves as ‘Rohingya’.

3.3.4 The name ‘Rohingya’ in Arakanese History:

5.British contributions about Muslims in Burma:

I searched for the ethnic group ‘Rohingyas’ in all history books, literature, encyclopaedias and other publications published before 1953 written by foreign scholars. Unfortunately, I did not find any. None of the British Colonial Officers recorded the name ‘Rohingya, neither in the Indian Subcontinent nor in Burma. To be honest, I had never heard of the word “Rohingya” until the late 1950′s.

1. “The fact that there has never been a “Rohingya” ethnic group in Burma is quite evident. There is no such name as “Rohingya” in the Census of India, 1921 (Burma) compiled by G. G. Grantham, I.C.S., Superintendent of Census Operations Burma, or in the Burma Gazetteer, Akyab District (1924) compiled by R. B. Smart.

2. Even in Hobson-Jobson. “A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive” published by British Colonial Officers of British East India Company, Col. Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell (First Published 1886) the word “Rohingya” was not mentioned. Since this book was published by the Bengal Chamber Edition, Calcutta, India, and is an indispensable dictionary for those who want to study the history of India during the last 300 years and its impact on the East and West, it should be considered as a standard literature.

3. The well known author and scholar, Maurice Collis, who wrote many articles and books about Arakan, also never mentioned the word “Rohingya”.

4. None of the British Colonial Officers’ contributions about Burma and India mentioned that word “Rohingya”, however, they mentioned about ‘Zerabadi’ the Indo-Burmese Hybrids or “Burmese Muslims”, the Muslims in Shwebo and Yamethin Districts in Burma Proper, “Myay Du Muslims”, “Kaman Muslims” and Bengali Muslim Settlers of Arakan.

5. In the book „The History of Modern Burma, by J. F. Cady, 1965, he neither mentioned the name ‘Rohingyas‘ nor the Arakanese Muslims.

6. Indeed, Francis Buchanan[15], a Scottish Doctor working with British East India Company, who accompanied the British envoys to the Court of Ava, the Capital of the then Burmese Empire, was one and the only person mentioned in an Article the names ‘Rooingas’ and ‘Rossawns’, the closest name to ‘Rohingya’ as a linguistic survey through the Provinces of Chittagong and Tiperah, however, he described those people as both Hindus and Muslims and their languages as dialects of Bengali. In any case, he wrote very clearly that they are called Kala or Strangers or Foreigners by the real natives of Arakan, i.e. Arakanese or Rakhaings (Francis Buchanan 1801).

I would like to cite his writing:

‘I shall now add three dialects, spoken in the Burma Empire, but evidently derived from the language of the Hindu nation. The first is that spoken by the Mohammedans, who have long settled in Arakan, and who call themselves Rooinga , or natives of Arakan. The second dialect is that spoken by the Hindus of Arakan. I procured it from a Brahmen and his attendants, who had been brought to Amarapura by the king’s eldest son, on his return from the conquest of Arakan. They call themselves Rossawn, and, for what reason I do not know, wanted to persuade me that theirs was the common language of Arakan. Both these tribes, by the real natives of Arakan, are called Kulaw Yakain, or stranger Arakan.

The last dialect of the Hindustanee which I shall mention, is that of a people called, by the Burmas, Aykobat, many of them are slaves at Amarapura. By one of them I was informed, that they had called themselves Banga ; that formerly they had kings of their own ; but that, in his father’s time, their kingdom had been overturned by the king of Munnypura, who carried away a great part of the inhabitants to his residence. When that was taken last by the Burmas, which was about fifteen years ago, this man was one of the many captives who were brought to Ava.

He said also, that Banga was seven days’ journey south-west from Munnypura: it must, therefore, be on the frontiers of Bengal, and may, perhaps, be the country called in our maps Cashar.’

For that version I like to give the following explanation:

Since Alaungphaya (Alaungphara) reestablished the Burmese empire, he and his successors invaded and annexed almost all neighbouring kingdoms including Siam, Langxiam, Assam, Manipur, Mon and Rakhaing etc.etc.

In Arakanese chronicles and literature like (Dhanyawadi Ayaydawpon) and (Maha Pyinyagyaw Hlyaukhton) it was written that there was a Muslim Sultanate or emirate called Roang Muslim Land (Roang/Roong Pree) which was feudatory to the king of Arakan.

It is very possible that the dukedom or emirate in Bangala (Bengal) called Roang/Roong was annexed into Manipur and some Bengalis from Roang/Roong were taken as slaves to Manipur. When Manipur became a feudatory state of the Burmese empire these slaves were either given as tribute to the Ava Empire or taken by the Burmese as slaves. However, I cannot trace any single Burmese word which can be close to ‘Aykobat’ mentioned by Buchanan! In Colloquial Burmese, there is a word called ‘Khaing-bat’ or rarely ‘A-khaing-bat’ which can be translated literally as ‘he/she who has to serve all people’, so a servant!

In any case, there was and is no connection between those ‘Rooingas’ mentioned by Buchanan and the ‘Rohingyas’ nowadays, otherwise, British Administrators in Bengal and Arakan had mentioned about them. The British records clearly mentioned about Bengali Hindus and Bengali Muslims in the Indian State of Bengal. That’s why West Bengal (Hindu majority) belonged to India and East Bengal (Muslim majority) went to Pakistan when British India was divided into two Dominions, namely India and Pakistan in 1947.

Bengali Settlers in Arakan were recorded as Mohamedans and Hindus by the British.

Conclusion:

I have presented this essay in the spirit of “cetana” meaning “good will or good intention” for the sake of some people who want to know the real history of Arakan and her people.
I want to emphasize that all Muslims in Burma are not called ‘Rohingyas’, not even all Muslims in Arakan were and are called ‘Rohingyas’.

In any case, I have to be very careful to present this article in a very neutral way so that the paper does not read either as an attack on “Rohingyas” or as a polemical piece aimed at “Rohingyas”, nor be seen as a racial writing. The biggest worry for me is: This article might be misinterpreted as an indirect support for the position of the very brutal Burmese Military Junta.

In the meantime, I would also like to suggest sincerely to the “Rohingyas” to change their tactics. They should learn to speak, read and write Burmese, especially the Rakhaing Dialect, and make friends with other ethnic groups of Burma, particularly with the Rakhaings who are the natives and majority of that state. Instead of demanding for the rights of an indigenous ethnic minority of Arakan by inventing fabricated and fanciful histories and trying to turn the traditional Buddhist land of Arakan into a Muslim state, they should be honest and just request to be granted the right to permanent residential status and then the right to become naturalized citizens of Burma step by step to which the Arakanese people (Rakhaings) will have no objection.

At the end, I would like to emphasize again that human rights violations, military abuses and brutal crimes committed against the “Rohingyas” by the various Burmese Military Juntas must be strongly condemned, whoever the “Rohingyas” are.

[1] U Aung Tha Oo, A Short History of Arakan (in Burmese), Mya Yadana Press, Rangoon, 1955, p. 8.

[2] Henry Yule and A. C. Burnell: “Hobson-Jobson” A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo Indian Words and Phrases; and of Kindred Terms. Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive (First Published in 1886,The Edition I use: Calcutta, 1990). P. 34

[3] San Shwe Bu, J.B.R.S Vol. 6, Part-3. 1916

[4] The Arakanese term for soap is ‘Thabon’ which is the corruption of Portuguese or French ‘Savon’. The Burmese used to have more contacts with Dutch ships. Burmese term for soap is ‘Saapya’, most probably a corruption of one of the Low German Dialects (Plattdeutsch) because some Germans from Northern Germany used to work as sailors on Dutch ships then. In High German (Hochdeutsch) Soap is ‘Seife’ (pronounced Sei Fa). In one of the Low German Dialects (Plattdeutsch) it is Safra. Most probably Burmese adapted that word Safra, then varied to Sapra and then corrupted to Saapya.

[5] M. S. Collis in collaboration with U San Shwe Bu, Dom Martin 1606 -1643, The first Burman to visit Europe

[6] Maurice Collis, The Land of the Great Image, p. 153

[7] U Aung Tha Oo, A Short History of Arakan (in Burmese), Mya Yadana Press, Rangoon, 1955, p.99

[8] Myo Min, Old Burma, p. 38

[9] See and compare with Maurice Collis in collaboration with San Shwe Bu, “Arakan’s Place in the Civilization of the Bay” in Journal of Burma Research Society, Vol. XXIII, p. 493.

[10] M. Collis, “Arakan’s Place in the Civilization of the Bay”, XXIII, p. 493.

[11] Tydd, W.D., Burma Gazetteer, Sandoway District, Vol. A, Rangoon, 1962

[12] U Aung Thein (Publisher), Biography of Rector U Kyaw Yin (in Burmese), Pyi Daw Tha Press Rangoon, 1967, p. 187.

[13] Forchhammer, Emil. 1892. Papers on Subjects Relating to the Archaeology of Burma: A Report on the History of Arakan. Rangoon: Government Press.

[14] Khin Gyi Pyaw, “Who are the Mujahids in Arakan”, in: Rakhine Tazaung Magazine, 1959 -60, p. 99.

[15] Buchanan, Francis. 1992. Francis Buchanan in Southeast Bengal (1798): His Journey to Chittagong, the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Noakhali and Comilla. Dhaka: Dhaka University Press.

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Burma’s Lost Kingdoms Splendours of Arakan (1)

Book review by Tilman Frasch (International Quarterly for Asian Studies, May 2003, Arnold Bergstraesser Institute)

By and large, Arakan has been a white spot on the scholarly world map, until in recent years scholars in France, the USA and the Netherlands wrote dissertations on various periods and aspects of the history of this coastal area. Responding to their research, the Dutch Academy of Sciences sponsored a conference on coastal Burma – in fact mainly dedicated to Arakan – the proceedings of which have just been published in book form. In this newly investigated field, the Australian art historian Pamela Gutman can be regarded as a kind of dinosaur: Her thesis on “Ancient Arakan with special reference to its cultural history between the 5th and the 11th centuries” was submitted to ANU as early as 1976, though it was unfortunately never published.

Therefore, it is to be welcomed that she has used her acquaintance with the Arakanese photographer Zaw Min Yu to produce a splendid volume on the lost kingdoms of Arakan. As the title suggests, the book focusses on the Mrauk-U (or Mrohaung) period when Arakan was an independent kingdom, roughly from the 14th to the 17th century. Most of the monuments at Mrauk-U were built in the course of these (roughly three) centuries. Now declared a national heritage site, the monuments are undergoing a ‘renovation’ programme comparable to the one started at Pagan, and it is to be expected that some of the pictures shown in the book record a state of preservation that future visitors will no longer be able to see.

As indicated above, Gutman’s field of expertise is the early history of Arakan, and therefore artefacts from the centuries preceeding Mrauk-U are also documented. Those interested in epigraphy will especially welcome the picture with the rock inscription by King Kawlia from the year 1123 C.E., one of the two Burmo-Arakanese inscriptions known so far (p. 14). Unfortunately, the picture is too poor to allow reading, though judged by the script it appears to be younger than the 12th century when it was supposedly written. Besides Mrauk-U, earlier phases of Arakanese history are taken into regard, too.

Gutman had access to several private collections which consist mostly of bronze (and to a lesser degree, stone) images of Buddhas and Buddhist deities. Arakan had always been a frontier zone between Theravada-dominated Burma and Bengal where other, sometimes syncretist religions flourished. It is therefore not surprising that a considerable number of images found in Arakan were dedicated to Mahayanist and Hindu deities.

It is an enjoyable publication, since it has the qualities of a coffee-table book without ever hiding its scholarly perfections. The only part where the latter are missing is in the introduction which seems to have been produced in a hurry, as it contains a number of mistakes. Thus, Fra Mannque, the Portuguese monk who visited Arakan in the early 17th century belonged to the order of the Augus-tines (and not Jesuits, p. 20), and it was during the reign of king Sirisudhammaraja (and not Sandasudhammaraja). Another source of mistakes are the references to the illustrations in the text, where on and off the numbers of pages and plates are mixed. These are, however, minor errors and can hardly detract from the overall positive impression.

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Burma’s Lost Kingdoms Splendours of Arakan (2)

Book review by Charles Higham (Antiquity March, 2002, p 277)

A surviving Indian text records that in the mid 3rd century BC, the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka ordered a mission east by Gavampti, Sona and Uttara, to spread the knowledge of Buddhism. Historical and archaeological research has demonstrated that the exchange of goods and ideas led to a rich vein of Indian influence among the early states of Southeast Asia. This is manifested in the adoption of Sanskrit titles, aspects of Hinduism and Buddhism, the Brahmi script and use of coinage and seals. In 1985, an article entitled ‘The Indianisation of Southeast Asia’ appeared in the World Atlas of Archaeology. It provided a map showing the principal sites where Indian influence has been documented. Curiously, this map does not include one site on the Arakan coast of western Burma, the region most likely to have been among the first to engage in trade relations with the Empire of Ashoka.
This omission is the more remarkable because it is recorded, in a local tradition, that the Buddha himself visited Arakan, landing on Selagiri hill with 500 disciples. He was greeted by the King Candrasuriya, itself a good Sanskrit name, and agreed that his image be created. The resulting mahamuni statue is believed to be the only true and contemporary likeness, and is generally regarded as one of the most sacred objects in the Buddhist world. In 1784, it was seized from its resting place in Arakan and taken by King Bodawpaya to Mandalay. It is now so covered in gold that the original form cannot be discerned.
Of all the countries of Southeast Asia, the late prehistory and early history of Burma is least known, and within Burma itself, most research has concentrated on the early states of Pyu and Pagan. Therefore, this synthesis is aptly entitled. The early Arakanese kingdoms have been overlooked in studies of early Southeast Asia, and this book does much to rectify the imbalance.
After a summary of the sequence as a whole, the book describes the principal stages in the development of civilization in four chapters. It begins with the earliest city of Dhanyawadi, and describes the mahamuni tradition and surviving archaeological and sculptural remains dating from 300 to 500 AD. Although it must be beyond doubt that late prehistoric sites ancestral to the first cities exist in Arakan, archaeological research has yet to tackle this important period. We learn much of the early royal line from the Shit-thaung pillar, an inscription in Sanskrit that was added to by kings of the Arakanese Candra Dynasty from the 6th century AD. According to tradition, the pillar was regarded as a legitimizing force, and was moved between successive capitals before reaching Mrauk-U. The most important and informative section of the inscription was the work of King Anandacandra. and dates to 729 AD. It details the names of 22 kings dating from the 4th century. It also describes his religious foundations and endowments, and donations to monasteries as far afield as Sri Lanka.
In the early 6th century, the capital was moved from Dhanyawadi to Vesali. The second chapter describes this city, the walls of which enclosed an area of 450 ha. The author stresses its convenient location on a river, giving it access to the sea and trade routes. These brought objects of Mediterranean origin to Arakan, while Vesali coins have been recovered in Bangladesh. Excavations have also uncovered the foundations of Buddhist monuments which, according to the Shit-thaung inscription, received patronage and gifts from the king whose palace lay in a central, walled precint within the city.
The third chapter is devoted to the kingdom that flourished in the Le-Mro valley from the 11th to the 15th centuries, a period when Arakan came under the influence of Pagan to the east. It is thought that the first capital, Sambawak, was founded in 1018. Unsettled conditions, internal uprisings and the predatory ambitions of Pagan to capture the mahamuni image made these unsettled times in Arakan, and the capital moved at least five times until the foundation of Mrauk-U in 1433.
The fourth section follows the history of Mrauk-U, a history strongly influenced by the arrival of Portuguese in the middle years of the 16th century. Arakan then became a force to be reckoned with, disposing of a strong navy and engaging in widespread trade. While foreign merchants and artisans had their own cantonments outside the walls of Mrauk-U, the city itself captured the imagination of European visitors, one of whom wrote in 1660 that ‘It would be difficult to imagine a more entrancing landscape’.
The scholarly importance of this book lies not only in its descriptive material of a long-neglected area, but also for the way in which it permits comparisons to be made with similar and contemporary transitions to civilization in Central Thailand, the Mekong Valley and coastal Vietnam. While it stands alone as a synthesis of this key area, the text is enhanced by a generous number of outstanding colour images taken especially by Zaw Min Yu. These display the rich artistic heritage of Arakan over almost two millennia, and contribute to making this volume a vital and handsome addition to the literature on early states in Southeast Asia. In future, no historic atlas will have a reason for excluding Arakan.

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Burma’s Lost Kingdoms Splendours of Arakan (3)

Book review by Reinhard Hohler (Tai Culture Vol. VI No. 1 & 2)

Arakan is one of the most unknown areas in the mainland of Southeast Asia, because it is far out in the wild west of Burma proper behind the mountainous barrier of the Arakan Yoma Range. There it streches along the Bay of Bengal, from the Naaf River as the border to Bangla Desh to Cape Negrais as part of the Irawadi Delta. Strangely enough, it is also the homeland of one of the oldest Buddhist traditions we have: the casting of the Maharnuni image, dating back to the time of the Buddha. The chronicles tell us that Buddha visited the Selagiri Hill opposite the town of Kyauktaw with 500 disciples and journeyed into the city of Dhanyawadi at the request of King Sanda Suriya where his image was casted for the first time. All the following kings of Arakan, even after they have shifted their capitals to various other places, always venerated this sacred image, until it was finally carried away in the year 1784 as war booty under King Bodawpaya of Amarapura, who built the famous Arakan Pagoda in modern Mandalay. Since that time, Arakan, or the Land of Silver, has lost its independence and constitutes today one state within the Union of Myanmar Pamela Gutman, an art historian, was first sent to Arakan in 1972 by Gordon H. Luce, author of the seminal Old Burma – Early Pagan ( New York 1969). She took her PhD in 1977 from the Australian National University for her thesis on Ancient Arakan, with special reference to its cultural history between the 5th and 11th centuries. Until today, she is an Honorary Associate Fellow of the University of Sydney. The book is a successful mix between a colourful coffee-table book and a more scholarly publication. The text is accompanied with a blend of 185 coloured plates, photographed by Zaw Min Yu, who has travelled widely in Burma and throughout the world, 9 construction plans of important pagodas and 5 maps, showing the sites of the old capitals of Arakan. The book’s contents are divided into 2 parts, a short note on the photography, a very useful historical time chart, bibliography, glossary, and index. The first part is setting the introduction and historical overview to Arakan, while the second part is illustrating the cities, shrines and sculptures. A special chapter is dedicated to the nat or spirit shrines which Arakan shares with other countries of Southeast Asia. Particular powerful spirits guard the cities and the country. Interesting to note is the female Wunti Nat who bears some resemblance to images of the Shakti cult of medieval Bengal (pp. 164-165).

The traditional histories claim the origins of the Arakanese in a remote past when Marayu founded Dhanyawadi after having cleared the country of demon-like creatures, who may have been Chin mountain tribes. Dhanyawadi was a typical mandala city of early Southeast Asia, connected to the open sea by the Kaladan River. The power of the kings stemmed from the control of water storage systems to maintain the fertility and prosperity of the land. Paramount to the history of Arakan is the famous Shit-thaung pillar, a stone stele inscribed by kings from the 6th century on and carried from capital to capital. The Shit-thaung pillar inscription of Anandachandra, who ruled the next important city Vesali in the 8th century, records a genealogy of 22 kings. Anandachandra is described as a devout Buddhist, who welcomed monks from Sri Lanka to whom he sent an elephant and robes. Also, in the 8th century the Mranma, the modern Burmese, overran the Pyu cities of the Irawadi Valley and founded their center in Pagan. It is unclear, if the Rakhain people belonged to them.

With the rise of the Burmese capital at Pagan, a series of Arakanese cities in the Le-mro Valley succeeded each other: Sambawak, Parein, Hkrit, and Launggret. It was King Min Saw Mun, who finally founded Mrauk-U with the help of a Muslim army from Bengal in 1433. The kings, though Buddhists, used Muslim titles, some issuing coins with Persian script. Under King Min Bin, Mrauk-U became the strongest fortified city with the help of the Portuguese in the 16th century. In the 17th century, the Dutch settled at Mrauk-U under King Sanda-thudhamma, whose coronation ceremony was attended by the Portuguese Jesuit Sebastian Manrique. The Dutch traveller Gautier Schouten visited Arakan in 1660. After that, Arakan lost more and more its influence and strength, and in 1784, the Mahamuni image was removed from Arakan to the Burmese king.
Gutman describes the art and architecture of Arakan as art between two cultures: Hindu and later Islam and European art from the west, Buddhist art from Cambodia, Thailand and Burma, including Mon art, from the east. The oldest sandstone sculptures were found at the Mahamuni shrine in Dhanyawadi: lokapalas, dvarapalas, nagas and naginis, also some figures of bodhisattvas, dated to the Gupta period of the 5th century. The Selagiri images (p. 50) are similar to Mon Dvaravati in Thailand. Very interesting are the Bengali Buddhist Mainamati bronzes (p. 56) and standing stone images of Vishnu (p. 60). The Buddha images of the Le-mro Valley are in the Pala-Sena art of Bodhgaya and look alike to Sri Lankan, Pagan, Lanna and Sukhothai ones One crowned image (p. 68) even shows Nepalese-Tibetan influence.
The main body of the book combines the vivid description of Mrauk-U as the earthly counterpart of Godking Indras’s Tavatimsa heaven. The area of the city is about 8 square kilometres with a palace site of nearly 2 square kilometers, where 49 kings resided in more than 350 years. The wooden palace disappeared a long time ago, once hiding some Khmer bronzes taken in war from Angkor Wat to Ayutthaya and thence to Pegu and to Arakan in 1600, before they were taken back to Burma in 1784. Over 70 important monuments, most of them built in grey sandstone brought from the coast, and various smaller shrines remain today and will be excavated or restored (plan 5 on pp. 76-77).
The Shit-thaung, or Pagoda of 80,000 Buddhas, is the highlight of any visit to Mrauk-U with 3 labyrinthine passages and remarkable reliefs, depicting the 3 worlds of Buddhism. The whole structure resembles Mount Mem, the holy abode of the 33 gods of Hindu mythology. But the arched facade and the dome shapes of the roof stupas recall Islamic architecture of pre-Mughal Bengal. The Koe-Thaung, or Pagoda of 90000 Buddhas, is the largest one in Mrauk-U, while the Htu-Kan-Thein (p. 117) looks like a European fortress. There was a foreign enclave west of the city, where ships could safely harbour.
The bronze images of Mrauk-U are well protected in the Palace Museum. A typical image is a crowned Buddha in the Yongle style of the Ming dynasty in the 15th-16th centuries (pp. 148-149). A series of composite Buddha images represents the 5 Buddhas or Bodhisattvas of our time: Kakusandha, Konagamana, Kassapa, the historical Gotama and the future Mertaya (pp. 154-155). Quite popular were Buddhas, holding a fan while preaching to the ogres (p. 159), and bronze models of votive stupas and shrines (p. 161). Also well known was the technique of lead glazed tiles and the production of jars with underglazed decoration (p. 162).
Gutman built her brilliant work on Emil Forchhammer’s Report on the History of Arakan ( Rangoon 1892). The most recommended book to read is about the experiences of Friar Manrique in Arakan: The Land of the Great Image by Maurice Collis ( New York 1943). The Buddhist Art of Ancient Arakan by San Tha Aung (Rangoon 1979) is not mentioned in the bibliography, also the references of Paranavitana (p 110) and Zhou Daguan (p 100) are missing. Finally, the only subject the reviewer misses in this book are the origins of the Sanskrit inscriptions in Arakan, a script which can be traced back to the Egyptian hieroglyphs. But last not least, this excellent book of Pamela Gutman and photographer Zaw Min Yu is filling an important gap in the art history of Southeast Asia.

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Burma’s Lost Kingdoms Splendours of Arakan (4)

Book review by Michael W. Charney (Department of History, School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Asian Perspectives Vol. 42 No.1 University of Hawaii Press)

Western Burma (or Arakan) has long been Burma’s neglected corner for historical and art historical research. In the early 1890s, Eniil Forchhammer, a colonial-era scholar, produced the first lengthy study of the epigraphy arid art history of early western Burma (Report on the Antiquities of Arakan, Rangoon, published by the Superintendent of Government Printing, 1892). Other scholars followed, including San Shwe Bu, in the early decades of the twentieth century, and U San Tha Aung, in the early 1970s, contributing significantly to our knowledge of pre-eighteenth-century western Burma. Pamela Gutman added much to this literature in 1976, when she submitted her Ph.D. dissertation, “Ancient Arakan, With Special Reference to its Cultural History between the 5th and the 11th Centuries,” to the Australian National University. Since then, Gutman has published numerous articles on the numismatics and art of western Burma. In the 1990s, a relative “boom” occurred in the historiography on pre-modern Burma, covering early modem trade, state formation, European interactions, cultural exchanges between western Burma and Sri Lanka, and art history. While the present volume appears to be targeted to a popular audience, it touches upon some of this historiography and helps to summarize it into a coherent survey of early western Burmese history.
The book consists of a balance of photographs by Zaw Min Yu and Gutman’s descriptive text. The photographs are of a very high quality and should prove informative to anyone who has not yet visited Mrauk-U, the royal capital of the early modern kingdom of Arakan (c. 1430s-1780s), or the towns that preceded it. Although travel to western Burma was restricted for some time by the Burmese government, it is now open to tourists, and Mrauk-U is accessible up the Kaladan River from the town of Sittwe.
Gutman’s text provides a summary of some of the key events and developments in western Burma ‘s history in order to put the photographs into context. Forchhammer (1892) provides a more detailed discussion of the temples than that offered here, but Gutman compensates for this by her incorporation of material on Buddhist images and other developments not considered by Forchhammer. Gutman also draws attention to recent developments, such as the “destruction” of the Santikhan mosque, presumed to be an early fifteenth-century structure (p. 86). Along a similar vein, Gutman’s discussion generally raises awareness of the changes that Mrauk-U’s structures have undergone, making on-site analysis difficult (p. 100).
As with any book, there are problems. It is likely the case that the style of this volume appears to be geared to a popular audience. Thus, specific citations of pages and volumes are not used. Only a slim survey of the literature appears in the bibliography, with several crucial works missing (for example, Catherine Raymond’s “Etude des Relations Religieuses Entre le Sri Lanka et l’Arakan du XIIc au XVIIIc Siècle: Documentation Historique et Èvidences Archèologiques,” Journal Asiatique 283(2): 469-501, 1995, and the various works of U San Tha Aung). This reviewer strongly recommends that any future edition of this book utilize specific citations, and include a broader survey of the literature, so that it will be more useful to scholars.
With a coherent general survey of early western Burmese art and architecture and a very absorbing body of photographic material, this volume will appeal to a wide audience. While its usefulness for researchers is limited, for the reasons mentioned above, those desiring an introduction to western Burma will find this to be an interesting book.

……………….

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A Brief Background and History of Arakan

With four dynastic eras; Dhanyawaddy, Vesali, Laymro and Mrauk-U, Arakan is thought to have been an independent nation for over 5,000 years until it was conquered by the Burmese in 1784. At its peak the kingdom was taking tribute from as far away as Mushidabad, India in the west to the Mon capital of Pegu in the east and much of lower Burma. Archaeological evidence suggests that it was also the first kingdom in the region to begin using currency and had many far-reaching trade networks.

In 1824, it was taken by the British and administered as an annexed state of India by the East India Trading Company. In 1826, the first official order was drawn up stretching from the mountainous region of Paletwa down to Cape Nargis in the Irrawaddy Delta, giving Arakan a total area of over 20,000 square miles. This was later decreased when the British separated the southern Bessein region.

Following a three year period under the rule of the Japanese fascist regime (1942-45), Arakan became encompassed into the Union of Burma, largely by default, and has since been under the rule of successive Burmese regimes, none of which have granted the Arakanese even the slightest autonomy. The first democratic government of Burma ruled in 1952 that Paletwa Township become part of Chin State, decreasing Arakan to its current size of 14,200 sq. ml. However, the majority of Paletwa’s population are still Arakanese.

Arakan Map with Burma Map

Traditional Culture

Arakan has a rich traditional culture, largely characterised in its literature, music, dance and religious buildings. Evidence of early literature can be found in the region dating back to first century AD. It is believed that Rakha Wanna (Arakanese alphabet) evolved from the Brahmin languages of Northern India.

Arakan, the land of the great image, traditionally professes Theravada Buddhism. Almost 100% of the Arakanese (Rakhaing) are Buddhists and the religion is an important element of Arakan and its nationality. It is believed that the Arakanese have been learning the teachings of Buddhism since Gautama Buddha visited Arakan during the reign of King Sanda Surira in 6thcentury BC. There are hundreds of ancient pagodas, temples and shrines in Arakan to this day especially in the old capital, Mrauk-U.

The most famous of these works is the Mahamuni Buddha Image that is now in Mandalay in central Burma. The Buddha statue was taken from Kyauktaw Township in 1784 by King Bodawpaya as one of many spoils of war. It is 4 metres high, and the statue is made of bronze, weighing 6.5 tones. Archaeologists believe the image was probably cast during the reign of King Chandra Surya, who ascended the throne in AD 146, some 600 years after the Buddha actually passed away.

Modern day Arakan

Today, the state has approximately 4 million inhabitants, primarily of Rakhaing ethnic origin. Most of these people live in rural areas and make a living from sustenance farming and fishing. The region benefits from a wealth of natural resources from its ancient forests, bountiful ocean and fertile plains. The state is divided into five districts, Site-tway, Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Kyaukphyu and Thandwe, which are then divided into 17 townships. Within these townships there are a total of 1,164 village tracts.

The state capital is Site-tway in Site-tway district, traditionally known as Akyab, and has an estimated population of 400,000. It is situated on the Bay of Bengal on an estuarial island at the convergence of the Kaladan, Laymro and Mayu rivers, surrounded by fertile land. The city grew significantly during the British colonial era when it was a very important commercial town, a centre for imports and exports, especially rice.

The modern socioeconomics of Arakan can be largely characterised by an extreme lack of development. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) figures from June 2007 found that only 41% of the state’s inhabitants had sustainable access to improved water, while a mere 36% had sustainable access to improved sanitation. These figures ranked the state lowest and second lowest respectively when compared with Burma’s other states and divisions. The same study also showed that Arakan ranked lowest and second lowest for its primary school enrolment rate and young adult literacy level. At the same time, the unemployment rate of 15-24 year olds was highest in the country too, at just over 11%.

The large majority of Arakan State’s inhabitants live in rural areas. These people make a living from fishing and farming and rely heavily on the use of rivers for both. In addition to important fish stocks in the ocean, local populations get much of their food from these rivers and their tributaries. Furthermore, over 85 % of Arakan State’s cultivated farmland (primarily paddy) is located along their valleys – two of the few large flat areas in the region. Due to a lack of good roads, the trade of both fish and agricultural products in the region is dependent on the use of waterways.

Throughout its history, Arakan has been largely reliant on agriculture, predominantly the production of rice. In fact, the area is one of Burma’s two main rice-producing regions, along with the Irrawaddy Delta. Since Burma’s first coup d’état rice production industry has been ruthlessly manipulated by the authorities to benefit the powerful and wealthy military. The majority of profits made from farming and fishing go straight into the hands of the SPDC, funding further military expansion and fuelling more human rights abuses, while millions of workers live in extreme poverty.

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Arakanese History

Arakanese History

The Arakanese history records the early Arakanese to migrate in Arakan and settled down in their true land since time immemorial. The independent and sovereign Buddhist Kingdom of Arakan had been splendidly flourishing from 3325 B.C. till the Burman invaders occupied it in 1784. The history of Arakan can be divided in to four major period throughout its thousand-years-long history.

They are:
- Dhannyawaddy Period

• The 1st Dhannyawaddy Period (King Marayu, BC. 3325 – BC. 1483)
• The 2nd Dhannyawaddy Period (King Kanrazagree, BC. 1483 – BC. 580)
• The 3rd Dhannyawaddy Period (King Chandra Surya, BC. 580 - AD. 326)

- Vesali Period (King Dvan Chandra, AD. 327 – AD. 1018)
- Laemro Period (King Nga Tone Munn, AD. 1018 – AD.1406)
- Mrauk-U Period (King Munn Saw Mwan, AD.1430 – 1784)

Dhannyawaddy Era [?????????]
The 1st Dhannyawaddy Period (BC. 3325 – BC. 1483)
According to the legend, Dhanyawadi [????????????????] (the first independent Arakan kingdom) was established in 3325 B.C by King Maryu [?????] (the Arakanese legendary hero-ancestor). It is said that King Rarayu [?????] had married the daughter of the chief of Mro [????] tribe and had founded Dhanyawadi [????????????????] after defeating the bilus [??????] (demon-like creatures) who arrived earlier in the area.


The Lost of Chittagong and Twelve Bengal Districts
Even though Arakan had reached zenith of power in the Bay when it was under the rule of the skilled and powerful kings, the country's glory and fame has steadily declined when it was succeeded and ruled by the unqualified kings. Chittagong and other districts of Bengal were invaded and occupied by the Moghal in 1666 AD.

The Lost of Arakan Kingdom, its nation and national identity
After the Moghal invaded and annexed part of the Arakanese territories, internal instability and dethroning of kings had happened very often in Arakan Court. Taking opportunity in the overall weakness inside the country, the Burmese King U Wine violated the good-friendly neighbour's ethics and dispatched his invading forces into Arakan in mid-November, 1784 and occupied it by the end of 1784.
The national independence of Arakan and sovereignty of the Arakan Kingdom were lost on 31 December 1784 (7 waxing day of Pratho 1146 AE.) when it was invaded and subjugated by the Burman King Maung Wyne. The people of Arakan became enslaved. The national flag hoisted in honour of the nation on the top of the Royal Assembly Hall was dropped. The dignity, the honour and the prestige of the Rakhine as a FREE NATION had terminated immediately after loss of independence.

The Rakhine State of Burma
The Rakhine state, consisting 17 townships was created by the then Burmese Socialist Programme Party (BSPP) government led by General Ne Win after granting Arakan region the state status. But it was done by the Burmese for administrative purposes.
Today area of Arakan is located between Lat. 16' 00" N- Lat. 21' 20" N and Long. 92' 20" E- Long. 95' 20" E. Arakan is known as one of the poorest states under so called Union of Burma ruled by military junta called SPDC (State Peace and Development Council) with its official name, Rakhine State.
Arakanese, however, use the term "Arakan" to mean the area which was historically and traditionally known as Arakan before the 1784 Burmese invasion. Despite over 200 years of Burmese occupation of Arakan, the Arakanese peoples refuse to be conquered and subjugated by the Burmese. Arakan independent movement started just after it lost independent and is carrying on until now.
Please visit our Scholars' Column for more articles and research papers on Arakanese history. Link: http://www.rakhapura.com/scholars-column/

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About Arakan

What is Arakan? [??????]

The land that is known as Arakan by the foreigners is called ‘Rakhaing-pray’ [??????????] by its own peoples, Rakhaing-thars (Arakanese) [?????????]. The word “Arakan” was a derivation of the ancient word “Arakha-de-sha” [???? ?????] (the land of Arakan) which is found in line forty of Anandachandra inscriptions of Shitethaung pillar.

What is Rakhaing or Rakhine? [??????]

According to the Arakanese chronicles, the word ‘Rakhaing’ [??????] was originated from Rakhapura [?????] and it means the original inhabitants of Rakhapura [?????]. Arakhadesha [?????????] > Rakhasa [?????] > Rakkha [??] > Rakkhaing [??????] > Rakhaing [??????] In Pali [?????] the word ‘Rakhaing’ [??????] is used to honour the people who love their nation, and preserve their national heritage, and their traditional ethics or morality [???].

Area of Arakan

Arakan is situated among India in the North, Burma in the East and People's Republic of Bangladesh in the West. To the south, it extends up to Haigri Islands and is bounded on the southwest by the Bay of Bengal. The area of Arakan was more than 20,000 sq. ml. till the British period. But, Burmese ruler, without the consent of Arakanese people, split up a north western Arakan Hill Tracts area bordering India and a southern most part of Arakan (from Kyauk Chaung River to Cape Negaris) from the Arakan mainland. Due to these partitions, the present day total area of Arakan was reduced to 18, 500 sq. ml and it comprise less than half of historic Arakan territory.

Religion

Buddhism was introduced into Arakan during the lifetime of Buddha himself. According to Arakanese chronicles, Lord Buddha, accompanied by his five hundred disciples, visited the city of Dhannyawadi (Grain blessed) in 554 B.C. King Chandra Suriya (Sun and Moon) and all the people converted to Buddhism and became Buddhists since then. The king requested Lord Buddha to leave the image of Himself to commemorate the event before he left Arakan and Lord Buddha consented it. This was the famous Mahamuni (Great Sage) image, known throughout the Buddhist world and desired by kings who sought to conquer the country in order to carry away this powerful prize. The history of this image is entwined with that of Arakan. After casting the Great Image Mahamuni, Lord Buddha breathed upon it which resembled the exact likeness of the Blessed One.

The tradition of the origin of the Mahamuni image can be interpreted as an allegorical account of the introduction of Buddhism to Arakan. The first evidence we have of Buddhism is in the early sculpture of the Mahamuni shrine at Dhanyawadi.

Arakanese, to show their utmost respect to King Chandra Suriya who had donated Mahamuni Shrine and introduced Buddhism into Arakan, have been using the signs of Sun and Moon as the most sacred symbols throughout the history until today.

These symbols can be found in all ancient coins of Arakan, as well as present-day flag and seal of Rakhaing state under Burma.

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